Chapter outline and page reference:
Rgveda 49
Ramayana 51
Mahabharat and Harivamsa 52
Antakrta-dasanga 56
Old Testament of the Bible 58
Petavatthu and Paramatthadipani 59
Kalpa Sutra 60
Uttaradhyayana Sutra 61
Kunalavadana 62
Nayadhammakahao 62
Svacchanda Tantra 63
Nirvan-bhakti 64
Avasyaka-sutra 64
Svayambhustotra 65
Sisupalavadha 68
Varaha Puran 71
Harivamsapurana 73
Nayakumaracariu 75
Mulasuddhiprakarana 75
Vastrapatha Ksetra Mahatmya 76
Abhidhanacintamani 85
Trisasti-salaka-purusacharita 86
Dvyasrayakavya 87
Kumarapalapratibodha 88
Munisuvratasvami-caritra 89
Naranarayanananda 90
Vijayachandra’s Hymn to the Jina Nemi on Mount Girnar 91
Vastupalaprasasti 91
Kirtikaumudi 93
Sukritasamkirtana 94
Revantagirirasu 95
Neminatha Chatushpadika 100
Nagakumaracharita 104
Yogisampradayaviskrti 105
Girnara-kalpa 105
Lilavati-sara 106
Vasantavilasa 107
Prabandhacintamani 108
Vividhatirthakalpa 111
Bappabhatti-Suri-Charita 114
Carcarika 115
Raivatachal Mahatmya 115
Prabandhakosa 117
Delami-aradh 118
A Ginan of the Barmati Panthi 119
Somasundara’s Hymn to the Jina Nemi on Mount Girnar 120
Ujjayanta-tirtha 120
Kumarapalaprabandha 121
Vastupalacarita 121
Giranara Caitra Pravadi 122
Upadesatarangini 123
Giranara-caitya-paripatis 124
Mandalika-nrpa-carita 124
Girnara-tirthamala 130
Saluvabhyudaya 130
Kupaksakausikasahasrakirana 131
Narada Puran 131
Girnar-tirthoddhara-mahima 132
Zafar Ul Walih Bi Muzaffar Wa Alihi 132
Mirat-i-Sikandari 135
Tirthamala 137
Khulasatu-t-tawarikh 137
Mirat-i-Ahmedi 138
Tarikh-i-Sorath wa Halar 140
Nathacaritra 141
A Poem about Girnar and Neminath 141
Mirat-i-Mustafa’abad 143
Girnar 144
Chapter preview (first three pages only):
Encircled by a net of clouds, beautiful with waterfalls,
the peak of Ujjilu (Revamtu) [Girnar] appears dark as bees or soot;
there the ground seems made of gold,
with many different ores and exudations;
there charming divine herbs illuminate
hidden, excellent, great, deep mountain caves.
[a poem from the Revantagirirasu of Vijay-Sen-Suri, 1231 AD (Warder 2004a)]
As Mount Girnar and Junagadh has been a particularly significant location throughout recorded history, there are plentiful texts which make mention of the site, under its various titles, including Ujjayanta, Raivataka, Girinarayan, and Girinagar. These works come from various religious traditions including Jain, Hindu and Muslim. The arrangement of the following texts is largely chronological.
When referring to references about Mount Girnar, particularly Jain references of the later part of the medieval period, Dhaky (1980, page 11) suggested that they: ‘…are regrettably few and their accounts are somewhat confused, in part inaccurate, anachronistic, improbable or exaggerated, and, what is worse, a little sectarian in colour. Yet the residual information extracted after careful sifting is intriguingly interesting and worthy of attention.’
Some of the following texts, particularly the medieval Jain works, are either biographical praises of people or glorifications of places of pilgrimage. According to Granoff (1988): ‘Writing biographies was a major preoccupation of medieval Jain scholars…biographical courtly poems generally were termed caritas, and the tirthamkaras and ancient religious heroes were the usual subject for these intricate and learned compositions which kept scrupulously close to the formulas worked out by the tracts on poetics for poetry acceptable as high art. In addition, a great minister or contemporary king could also be eulogized in the style of the Sanskrit mahakavya…The prabandhas, however, closer to the vernacular language, were the normal vehicle for describing the lives of more recent figures, the many monks, kings, ministers and lay devotees, who were particularly important to the Jain community…the prabandhas, while often incorporating stray verses from the pens of the court poets in their prasastis, (panegyrics) or poems, seem to have drawn on…the rich variety of legends that must have circulated widely amongst the Jains…’. Jain texts describing the merits of pilgrimage sites are called tirthakalpas, which are in fact tirthamahatmyas or glorifications of holy places. Although they sometimes overlap, prabandhas deal primarily with people while tirthakalpas set out to describe the glories of a place.
Rgveda
After analysing the Vedic references to Sambara, Bhat (1969) concluded that he is described as a real human and not as a poetic or metaphoric, atmospheric, cloud nature-entity: ‘As these references stand, there is nothing in them that could be regarded as suggestive of a natural basis. On the contrary, there is much that could lead to the postulation of a human basis… Sambara’s connection with mountain is mentioned in several passages… This ‘mountain’ may have been later identified with ‘cloud’. But it could equally have been a real mountain-fastness or fortress, which was Sambara’s residence… the destruction of his ‘cities’ figures prominently in several passages… the most common number is 99… These ‘cities’ may be identified with ‘clouds’ in a symbolical description. But still they could have been real fastnesses or habitations commanded by Sambara’.
Pradhan (1927, 1930a) provided an argument that the site of the Rgvedic battle between Divodasa and Sambara was fought at Mount Girnar and the ancient castle of Uparkot, and occurred about 1500 BC, in the middle Rgvedic period. He suggested that this battle was one of the greatest that the Rgvedic Aryans fought against the non-Aryans of India, and that kings of several Aryan dynasties co-operated with Divodasa against Sambara and his allies. He suggested that the Rgveda indicates that Sambara had in his possession several hill citadels or castles, that one of his allies was Varcin, that the citadels were stormed by Divodasa, who was a worshipper of Indra, and that Sambara was hurled down from a huge rock and was killed (Rgveda II, 12, 11; II, 14, 3, 6; IV, 30, 20; VI, 26, 3, 5; VII, 19, 5) (see Hare 2010). Pradhan alluded to the possibility that this huge rock that Sambara was thrown from may be the ‘great rock named ‘Bhairava Jap’…from which ascetics were wont to hurl themselves.’
Pradhan continued his argument, that the battle took place in a country called Udabraja (i.e. sea-girt), which may refer to the peninsula of Saurashtra or Kathiawar. In this context the Rgveda refers to ‘the unbesieged (Sanskrit: aparivistam) gate of Urjayanti’. Urjayanti is the same as the Prakrit Ujjayanta, where the diminutive suffix is eliminated. The name Ujjayanta refers to Girnar in many ancient scriptures and inscriptions, including the Mahabharat, Rudradaman’s (150 AD) and Skandagupta’s (457 AD) inscriptions on the Ashoka Edict Rock at Girnar, the Skand Puran (11th–12th century AD), and Merutunga’s Prabandhacintamani (1304 AD). Lugwig (1876–1888), in his translation of the Rgveda, regarded Urjayanti, which is present in only one passage (Book II, Chapter 13, Verse 8), as the name of a fort, the stronghold of Narmara. One translation of this Vedic hymn sings: ‘Thou Indra, who broughtest Narmara with all his wealth of Urjayanti to slay him, so that the demons might be destroyed’ (Waddell 1930). Another translation is as follows: ‘Oh (Indra), doer of many (heroic) deeds! You who carried Sahavasu, the son of Nrmara, to the unbeseiged gate of Urjayanti for Prksa and Dasavesa, are worthy to be praised’ (Pradhan 1930a).
From the above argument the Rgveda would seem to indicate that quite a number of hill forts, 99 in total, of Sambara were destroyed by Divodasa, who reserved the hundredth for his residence. This last may have been the inaccessible fort on Mount Girnar, as the Rgveda informs us that the fort (i.e. pur) Urjayanti was impregnable (Pradhan 1930a). Other workers to identify Urjayanti of the Rgveda with Ujjayanta (Girnar) include Chakraberty (1945, page 118), Raychaudhuri (1926, 1932) and Desai (1959, page 23).
On the other hand, one could argue that the Rgveda in this context is not speaking about a real person (Sambara) in a real place (Girnar), but is instead a story of the gods.
Desai (1959) proposed that, during the period stretching from the earliest times down to the beginning of the Mauryan Empire, Nagas, Asuras, Danavas, Daityas and Raksasas, traditionally known as Non-Aryans, were settled on the western sea-board of Sindh and Gujarat, had flourishing settlements with maritime trade, and that most of the Aryan/Non-Aryan conflicts took place in the region: ‘Aryans were jealous of this prosperity and hence wars were fought over a long period in order to snatch away the Non-Aryan supremacy over the sea’. Desai (1959) also suggested that the Rgvedic Indra-Vrtra struggles were fought here, and he fixed the location of Patala in Gujarat. He stated that: ‘The Western coast, which has been till now completely neglected, may get its due prominence as a storm-centre of the Vedic and Epic history, that witnessed Aryan — Non-Aryan conflicts in its awe-inspiring intensity’.
Ramayana
Pradhan (1927, page 16) pointed out that: ‘In the Ramayana we find that Dasaratha together with other Rajarsis proceeded towards the south to fight against Sambara who used to live in a city named Vaijayanta, the capital of
i want information about Kalpa Sutra 60
Hi Nimesh
My present account of Girnar restricted my focus only to what the Kalpa Sutra had to say about that mountain. But in case you are interested I have given my notes below. Keep in mind that the name Revatika given in the Kalpa Sutra is one of the very commonly used names for the mountain in early times.
Kalpa Sutra
The Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Tirthankars, most notably Parsvanath and Mahavir. Within the six sections of the literary corpus belonging to the Svetambar school, it is classed as one of the Cheda Sutras, which are a collection of Svetambar law books which deal with disciplinary regulations of ascetic life. Bhadrabahu I (433–357 BC) is considered the author of the text and it is traditionally said to have been composed about 150 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira, i.e. 377 BC. On the other hand Stevenson (1848, page ix), who translated the Kalpa Sutra into English, suggested that: ‘The Kalpa Sutra, according to a date embodied in the work itself, was composed 980 years after the demise of Mahavira, that is to say, A.D. 411. The public reading of the work took place twelve years afterwards, as narrated in the Introduction. The author’s name was Bhadra Bahu, and the sovereign who then reigned in Gujarath, was Dhruva Sena’. There is reason to doubt this last comment, as it is currently generally accepted that Valabhi’s Maitraka ruler Dhruvasena I reigned approximately 519–549 AD.
Stevenson (1848, page 98) gave an account of the history of Nemi in his translation of the Kalpa Sutra: ‘The Arhat Nemi was son of King Samudravijaya and his queen Siva, and was born in the city of Sori (Agra). He was born in Sravan the first month of the rainy season, under the constellation Chitra. He became an ascetic at the age of three hundred at Dvaraka (Mag. [Magadhi] Baravavae). He died on Mount Girnar, after living seven hundred years as an ascetic, in all a thousand years. He was only fifty-five days an imperfect ascetic. This book was composed eighty-four thousand nine hundred and fifty years after his death. He is also called Arishta Nemi, and Neminatha’.
The following passages, where reference is made to Mount Girnar, are from the chapter on the life of Arishtanemi (Neminath) in the Kalpa Sutra (Jacobi 1884):
‘The Arhat Arishtanemi, clever, etc… In the first month of the rainy season, in the second fortnight, the light (fortnight) of Sravana, on its sixth day riding in his palankin called Uttarakura, and followed on his way by a train of gods, men, and Asuras, etc (Arishtanemi) went right through the town of Dvaravati to the park called Revatika, and proceeded to the excellent Asoka tree… When the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Kitra, after fasting two and a half days without drinking water, he put on a divine robe, and together with a thousand persons he tore out his hair, and leaving the house entered the state of houselessness…
‘The Arhat Arishtanemi for fifty-four days neglected his body, etc. During the fifty-fifth day — it was in the third month of the rainy season, in the fifth fortnight, the dark fortnight of Asvina, on its fifteenth day, in the last part of the day, when the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Kitra — (Arishtanemi) under a Vetasa tree on the summit of mount Girnar, after fasting three and a half days without drinking water, etc, obtained infinite, etc, highest knowledge and intuition called Kevala, etc…
‘When his fourfold Karman was exhausted and in this Avasarpini era a great part of the Duhshamasushama period had elapsed, in the fourth month of summer, in the eighth fortnight, the light (fortnight) of Ashadha, on its eighth day, in the middle of the night when the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Kitra, (Arishtanemi), after fasting a month without drinking water, on the summit of mount Girnar, in the company of five hundred and thirty-six monks, in a squatting position, died, etc.’
In another chapter, I gave a brief account of Bhadrabahu, the author of the Kalpa Sutra, as he is said to have visited Girnar:
Acharya Bhadrabahu I
Acharya Bhadrabahu I (433–357 BC), the last Shrutkevli (possessor of the knowledge of the entire system of Jain scriptures) Acharya, was a Jain monk, a spiritual teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, and author of several texts related to Jainism, including some of the most important works, Upsargahara Stotra and Kalpa Sutra. He was born in Pundravardhan, now in Bangladesh. When he was in Ujjain, the secondary capital of the Mauryas, he was able to foresee that there would be a 12-year famine across North India. He decided the famine would make it harder for monks to survive and migrated with a group of monks to South India, bringing with him Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, turned Jain monk (Wikipedia 2009g). The Kalpa Sutra is the earliest text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankars, Mahavir (24th), Parsvanath (23rd), Neminath (22nd) and Adinath (1st), since the arrangement of the book moves back in time. Acharya Bhadrabahu is one of many Jain saints to have visited Girnar (Jainethics.com 2009).
All the best
John